Eventive Namespace

Core Definition

Eventive frames foreground dynamic occurrences as central phenomena, emphasizing the Event itself rather than specific participant roles. These frames profile happenings or processes where the event's occurrence is the primary semantic content, with participants playing supporting but less differentiated or less semantically specified roles. The essence of eventive frames is that "something happens" - the event is salient, participants may be backgrounded, underspecified, or absent.

Theoretical foundation: Eventive frames encode the basic template:

OCCUR(Event)
  [with optional: PARTICIPANT(Theme/Patient, role_unspecified)]
  [with optional: LOCATION(where)]
  [with optional: TIME(when)]

Key characteristics:

• Event-centric: The event itself is primary, not who causes it or who is affected
• Participant flexibility: Participants may be optional, backgrounded, or unspecified
• No obligatory Agent/Cause: Unlike causatives and actions, no volitional causer is required or profiled
• No obligatory affected Patient: Unlike inchoatives, change-of-state may be absent or backgrounded
• No obligatory Path: Unlike transitions, directional movement is not central
• Dynamic: Unlike statives, involves change/happening over time
• Non-agentive: Typically involves natural phenomena, not intentional agents

Vendler aspectual diversity: Can be Activities (atelic) or Accomplishments (telic), rarely States

Philosophical grounding: Eventive frames capture what Davidson (1967) called "pure events" - occurrences that can be described without necessarily specifying all participants. They emphasize eventuality (that something occurred) over participation structure.

Scope Clarification

What Eventive frames INCLUDE:

• Natural meteorological phenomena: Choveu (It rained), Nevou (It snowed)
• Natural forces and processes: O vento soprou (The wind blew), O rio transbordou (The river overflowed)
• Non-agentive causal events: O vento quebrou a janela (The wind broke the window), O terremoto destruiu a cidade (The earthquake destroyed the city)
• Spontaneous occurrences: Aconteceu um acidente (An accident happened)
• Biological/physiological processes (non-volitional): A planta cresceu (The plant grew)

What Eventive frames EXCLUDE (see other namespaces):

• Agentive activities → See Action namespace (João correu - João ran)
• Agentive causation with results → See Causative namespace (João quebrou o vaso - João broke the vase)
• Result-focused without explicit cause → See Inchoative namespace (O vaso quebrou - The vase broke)

Note on non-agentive causes: Natural forces (wind, rain, earthquakes) causing changes are classified as Eventive rather than Causative. While they may cause results, the lack of agency/intentionality places them in this namespace:

• O vento quebrou a janela (Wind broke the window) → Eventive (natural force, no agent)
• João quebrou a janela (João broke the window) → Causative (agentive causation)

Natural Phenomena Subtypes

A major class of eventive frames involves natural processes - events in the physical world without human agency.

Meteorological Events (Weather)

Definition: Atmospheric phenomena and weather conditions.

Semantic template: OCCUR(Weather_Event, at_Location, at_Time)

Characteristic property: Often zero-argument or impersonal constructions in Portuguese

Subtypes

a) Precipitation events:

Choveu (ontem)
(It rained yesterday)
- Zero-argument verb
- No explicit subject (impersonal)

Nevou nas montanhas
(It snowed in the mountains)

Granizou durante a tempestade
(It hailed during the storm)

Portuguese pattern: Weather verbs are impersonal (no grammatical subject)

• ✗ *A chuva choveu (ungrammatical - "the rain rained")
• ✓ Choveu (impersonal - "it rained")

b) Wind events:

Ventou muito ontem
(It was very windy yesterday / The wind blew hard)

O vento soprou
(The wind blew)
- Can have explicit subject "o vento" (the wind)
- Or impersonal: Ventou

c) Temperature events:

Esfriou durante a noite
(It got cold during the night)

Esquentou muito hoje
(It got very hot today)

d) Storm events:

Trovejou a noite toda
(It thundered all night)

Relampejou antes da chuva
(It lightninged / There was lightning before the rain)

Houve uma tempestade
(There was a storm)

e) Atmospheric conditions:

Amanheceu nublado
(It dawned cloudy / The day broke cloudy)

Anoiteceu rapidamente
(It got dark quickly / Night fell quickly)

Participant structure

Minimal participants:

• Often no Theme/Patient explicitly
• Location and Time are primary adjuncts
• Event itself is primary

Example analysis:

Choveu [em São Paulo] [ontem]
(It rained [in São Paulo] [yesterday])

Event: chuva (rain occurrence)
Location: em São Paulo
Time: ontem
No Theme, no Agent, no Patient

Cross-linguistic note: Portuguese differs from English in allowing more flexibility:

Portuguese: 
- Choveu (impersonal, most common)
- Caiu chuva (lit. "fell rain" - rare)
- A chuva caiu (lit. "the rain fell" - possible but marked)

English:
- It rained (impersonal with dummy "it")
- ✗ *Rained (no subject required)

Geological/Seismic Events

Definition: Earth processes and tectonic phenomena.

Examples:

a) Seismic activity:

Houve um terremoto
(There was an earthquake)
- Existential construction with "houve" (there was)

O chão tremeu
(The ground shook)
- Can have explicit Theme "o chão" (the ground)

A terra balançou
(The earth/ground swayed)

b) Volcanic activity:

O vulcão entrou em erupção
(The volcano erupted)
- Explicit Theme "o vulcão" (the volcano)

Houve uma erupção
(There was an eruption)
- Existential, no explicit Theme

c) Erosion processes:

A rocha erodiu
(The rock eroded)
- Theme "a rocha" can be specified

Ocorreu erosão na costa
(Erosion occurred on the coast)
- Event-nominalization, minimal participant structure

d) Landslides/avalanches:

Houve um deslizamento de terra
(There was a landslide)

A montanha desmoronou
(The mountain collapsed)

Properties

• Can have explicit Theme (physical entity undergoing process)
• Or existential construction backgrounding Theme
• No Agent/Cause typically (natural forces)
• Process-focused

Astronomical/Celestial Events

Definition: Cosmic and celestial phenomena.

Examples:

a) Solar/lunar events:

O sol nasceu
(The sun rose / Sunrise occurred)
- Explicit Theme "o sol"

Amanheceu
(It dawned / Day broke)
- Impersonal

Anoiteceu
(It got dark / Night fell)
- Impersonal

A lua surgiu
(The moon appeared/rose)

b) Eclipses:

Houve um eclipse
(There was an eclipse)

O sol se eclipsou
(The sun was eclipsed)
- Reflexive construction

c) Meteor events:

Uma estrela caiu
(A star fell / A meteor fell)

Choveram meteoritos
(Meteors rained down)
- Meteorological metaphor

Biological/Organic Processes

Definition: Natural biological processes and organic events.

Examples:

a) Growth/development:

A planta cresceu
(The plant grew)
- Theme "a planta" specified

As flores brotaram
(The flowers sprouted)

A semente germinou
(The seed germinated)

b) Decay/decomposition:

A madeira apodreceu
(The wood rotted)

O fruto estragou
(The fruit spoiled)

A matéria se decompôs
(The matter decomposed)
- Reflexive construction

c) Blooming/flowering:

A árvore floresceu
(The tree bloomed)

As rosas desabrocharam
(The roses blossomed)

d) Natural cycles:

As folhas caíram
(The leaves fell)

A maré subiu
(The tide rose)

A estação mudou
(The season changed)

Properties

• Theme typically specified (plant, organism, natural entity)
• Processes are spontaneous (internal biological programs)
• No external Agent/Cause profiled
• Gradual, natural development

Physical/Chemical Processes

Definition: Non-living natural processes governed by physical/chemical laws.

Examples:

a) Combustion:

O fogo queimou
(The fire burned)

A madeira ardeu
(The wood burned)

Houve uma combustão
(There was a combustion)

b) Phase transitions:

A água evaporou
(The water evaporated)

O gelo derreteu
(The ice melted)
- Can be framed as inchoative (focus on result state)
- Or eventive (focus on process occurring)

O vapor condensou
(The vapor condensed)

c) Chemical reactions:

A substância reagiu
(The substance reacted)

Ocorreu uma reação química
(A chemical reaction occurred)

O metal oxidou
(The metal oxidized)

d) Sound/light phenomena:

O som ecoou
(The sound echoed)

A luz refletiu
(The light reflected)

A onda propagou-se
(The wave propagated)

Processes Without Endpoints: Activities vs. Accomplishments

Eventive frames vary in telicity - whether they have inherent endpoints.

Atelic Activities (No Inherent Endpoint)

Definition: Events that can continue indefinitely without natural terminus; no built-in completion point.

Vendler class: Activities

Semantic structure: OCCUR(Activity(x)) with no inherent bound

Examples:

a) Continuous processes:

O rio flui
(The river flows)
- Can continue indefinitely
- No natural endpoint

O vento sopra
(The wind blows)
- Ongoing, unbounded

A máquina funciona
(The machine functions)
- Continuous operation

b) Oscillatory/repetitive processes:

O coração bate
(The heart beats)
- Repetitive, ongoing

As ondas se agitam
(The waves churn)
- Continuous motion

A bandeira tremula
(The flag flutters)

c) Emission processes:

A luz brilha
(The light shines)
- Continuous emission

O rádio transmite
(The radio transmits)

A fonte jorra
(The fountain gushes)

Aspectual diagnostics for Activities

Test 1: "Por X tempo" (for X time) - compatible

✓ O rio fluiu por horas (The river flowed for hours)
✓ O vento soprou por três dias (The wind blew for three days)
- Specifies duration, no endpoint implied

Test 2: "Em X tempo" (in X time) - incompatible

✗ *O rio fluiu em uma hora (odd - no completion point)
✗ *O vento soprou em três dias (odd - "in" suggests completion)
- Cannot specify completion time (no completion)

Test 3: Progressive - fully compatible

✓ O rio está fluindo (The river is flowing)
✓ O vento está soprando (The wind is blowing)
- Natural, ongoing interpretation

Test 4: Stop test - can stop at any point

O rio fluiu por uma hora e então parou
(The river flowed for an hour and then stopped)
- Stopping at any point is natural
- No sense of incompleteness

Test 5: Homogeneity - subinterval property

If: O rio fluiu de 2h às 5h
Then: O rio fluiu de 2h às 3h (any subinterval is also flowing)
- Homogeneous temporal structure

Telic Accomplishments (With Inherent Endpoint)

Definition: Events that have natural completion points or inherent goals.

Vendler class: Accomplishments

Semantic structure: OCCUR(Process(x)) → RESULT(State(x))

Examples:

a) Maturation processes:

A fruta amadureceu
(The fruit ripened)
- Endpoint: ripe state achieved
- Process: gradual ripening

A criança desenvolveu-se
(The child developed)
- Endpoint: mature/developed state

b) Consumption processes:

A vela consumiu-se
(The candle was consumed / burned down)
- Endpoint: complete consumption
- Process: gradual burning

O combustível esgotou-se
(The fuel was exhausted)

c) Completion processes:

O ciclo completou-se
(The cycle completed)
- Inherent endpoint: cycle completion

O processo terminou
(The process ended)

Aspectual diagnostics for Accomplishments

Test 1: "Em X tempo" (in X time) - compatible

✓ A fruta amadureceu em duas semanas (ripened in two weeks)
✓ A vela consumiu-se em três horas (burned down in three hours)
- Completion time specified

Test 2: "Por X tempo" (for X time) - less natural

? A fruta amadureceu por duas semanas (ripened for two weeks)
- Less natural than "em"; suggests process duration but odd

Test 3: Progressive - compatible

✓ A fruta está amadurecendo (The fruit is ripening)
✓ A vela está se consumindo (The candle is burning down)
- Ongoing toward endpoint

Test 4: Stop test - incomplete if stopped

A fruta amadureceu por uma semana e então parou
(The fruit ripened for a week and then stopped)
- Implies incomplete ripening
- Sense of incompleteness

Test 5: Non-homogeneous - phases

A fruta amadureceu de segunda a sexta
NOT necessarily: A fruta amadureceu na segunda (specific day)
- Different phases of ripening (beginning, middle, end)
- Not homogeneous like activities

The Atelic-Telic Boundary

Many eventive processes can be construed as either atelic or telic depending on context:

Example: Queimar (burn)

Atelic construal (activity):

A madeira queimou por horas
(The wood burned for hours)
- Focus: ongoing burning activity
- No completion implied
- Can stop at any point

Telic construal (accomplishment):

A madeira queimou em duas horas
(The wood burned down in two hours)
- Focus: complete consumption
- Endpoint: wood fully consumed
- Completion-oriented

Factors affecting construal

1. Object definiteness: Definite objects → telic; mass/indefinite → atelic
2. Temporal modification: "em X" → telic; "por X" → atelic
3. Completion prefixes: consumir-se → telic emphasis
4. Context: Completion context → telic; ongoing context → atelic

Participant Underspecification

A defining feature of eventive frames is participant flexibility - participants may be optional, backgrounded, or semantically underspecified.

Optional Participants

Many eventive frames allow participants to be omitted without ungrammaticality:

Examples:

a) Optional Theme:

Choveu (It rained)
- No Theme necessary (impersonal)

vs.

A chuva caiu (The rain fell)
- Theme specified but not required

b) Optional Location:

Houve um terremoto (There was an earthquake)
- Location unspecified

vs.

Houve um terremoto no Chile (There was an earthquake in Chile)
- Location specified

c) Optional Manner/Instrument:

O fogo queimou (The fire burned)
- No manner specified

vs.

O fogo queimou intensamente (The fire burned intensely)
- Manner specified

Backgrounded Participants

Some eventive frames have potential participants that are systematically backgrounded - present conceptually but not expressed:

Examples:

a) Backgrounded Cause:

A rocha erodiu (The rock eroded)
- Cause (wind, water, etc.) not specified
- Focus on event happening, not what caused it

O metal oxidou (The metal oxidized)
- Chemical cause (oxygen exposure) backgrounded
- Event itself profiled

b) Backgrounded Agent (in spontaneous events):

A porta abriu (The door opened)
- Possible Agent not mentioned
- Construed as spontaneous

A janela quebrou (The window broke)
- Possible Causer backgrounded
- Event-focused interpretation

Semantically Underspecified Participants

When participants are expressed in eventive frames, their roles may be semantically general or underspecified:

Generic Theme role:

A água flui (The water flows)
- Theme: água (water)
- Role: generic participant in flowing event
- Not affected/changed (unlike Patient)
- Not actively causing (unlike Agent)
- Just: thing that flows

O som propagou-se (The sound propagated)
- Theme: som (sound)
- Role: thing that propagates (generic)

Contrast with specified roles:

Causative frame (specified roles):

João quebrou o vaso
- Agent: João (intentional causer)
- Patient: vaso (affected entity)
- Roles well-differentiated

Eventive frame (underspecified role):

O vaso quebrou
- Theme: vaso (undergoer/participant)
- Role: thing that breaks (generic participation)

Zero-Participant Events (Impersonal)

Some eventive frames have no obligatory participants:

Weather verbs (fully impersonal):

Choveu (It rained)
Nevou (It snowed)
Trovejou (It thundered)
- No grammatical subject
- No Theme required
- Pure event expression

Existential events:

Houve uma festa (There was a party)
- Existential construction
- Event/entity existence asserted
- No participant roles assigned

Temporal events:

Amanheceu (It dawned / Day broke)
Anoiteceu (It got dark / Night fell)
- Impersonal temporal transitions
- No participants

Spontaneous Events: Events Without Clear External Causation

A key characteristic of many eventive frames is spontaneity - events occur without clear external cause.

What is Spontaneous Causation?

Definition: Events conceptualized as arising from internal forces, natural processes, or unknown causes rather than external agents or clear causal events.

Semantic structure: OCCUR(Event) without CAUSE(x, Event) component

Contrast with causatives:

CAUSATIVE: João quebrou o vaso
- External Agent João causes breaking
- Causation is profiled

SPONTANEOUS/EVENTIVE: O vaso quebrou
- No external cause specified
- Event just happens (from perspective expressed)
- Possible causes backgrounded

Types of Spontaneous Events

a) Physical spontaneity (structural failure):

A corda arrebentou (The rope snapped)
- Internal stress causes failure
- No external agent profiled

O galho partiu (The branch broke)
- Structural weakness, wind, weight → causes backgrounded
- Event itself profiled

A parede rachinou (The wall cracked)

b) Natural maturation (biological programs):

A fruta amadureceu (The fruit ripened)
- Internal biological program drives maturation
- No external agent needed

A planta cresceu (The plant grew)
- Natural growth process

O cabelo branqueou (The hair turned white/gray)

c) Chemical/physical processes (natural laws):

O metal enferrujou (The metal rusted)
- Chemical oxidation occurs naturally
- Exposure to oxygen = condition, not profiled cause

A água evaporou (The water evaporated)
- Phase transition due to temperature
- Conditions enable but aren't profiled as causes

O alimento estragou (The food spoiled)

d) Appearance/disappearance:

Um problema surgiu (A problem arose/appeared)
- Emergence without specified cause
- Spontaneous manifestation

A dor desapareceu (The pain disappeared)
- Spontaneous cessation

Spontaneity vs. Causation: The Perspective Shift

Many events can be framed as either spontaneous or caused depending on perspective:

Spontaneous framing (eventive):

A porta abriu
(The door opened)
- No cause mentioned
- Event just happens
- Construed as spontaneous

Focus: Event occurrence

Caused framing (causative):

João abriu a porta
(João opened the door)
- Causer specified
- Intentional causation
- Agent-oriented

Focus: Causation by Agent

Or with non-intentional cause:

O vento abriu a porta
(The wind opened the door)
- Natural force cause
- Still causative (not spontaneous)

Linguistic evidence for spontaneity

Incompatibility with causal questions:

Spontaneous eventive:
A fruta amadureceu
? Por que a fruta amadureceu? (Why did the fruit ripen?)
  → Odd question (natural process, not requiring explanation)
  → Or: answer refers to conditions, not cause: "porque estava na árvore" (because it was on the tree)

Causative:
João quebrou o vaso
✓ Por que João quebrou o vaso? (Why did João break the vase?)
  → Natural question expecting intentional reason

Manner of causation unspecifiable:

Spontaneous:
✗ *A fruta amadureceu deliberadamente (The fruit ripened deliberately)
✗ *O metal enferrujou intencionalmente (The metal rusted intentionally)

Causative:
✓ João quebrou o vaso deliberadamente (João broke the vase deliberately)

Collective/Distributed Events

Some eventive frames involve multiple participants acting collectively or distributively.

Collective Events (Group as Unit)

Definition: Events where multiple participants act as a unified collective.

Semantic structure: OCCUR(Event, PARTICIPANT(Collective_Theme))

Examples:

a) Social gatherings:

As pessoas se reuniram
(The people gathered/met)
- Collective Theme: as pessoas (the people)
- Action: gathering (collective)

Os estudantes se manifestaram
(The students protested)
- Collective action

b) Group motion:

A multidão se moveu
(The crowd moved)
- Collective entity in motion

Os animais migraram
(The animals migrated)
- Collective migration

c) Collective states becoming:

O grupo se formou
(The group formed)
- Coming into existence as collective

A organização se dissolveu
(The organization dissolved)
- Ceasing to exist as collective

Properties

1. Collective noun subjects:

   multidão (crowd), grupo (group), população (population), time (team)
   

2. Plural subjects acting as unit:

   Os manifestantes (the protesters), as pessoas (the people)
   

3. Reflexive construction common:

   se reunir (gather), se manifestar (protest), se organizar (organize)
   

4. No individual differentiation:

   • Participants not distinguished individually
   • Focus on collective action/state

Distributed Events (Multiple Individuals)

Definition: Events where multiple participants act separately but in parallel or related manner.

Semantic structure: ∀x ∈ Group: OCCUR(Event(x))

Examples:

a) Distributed occurrence:

As flores desabrocharam
(The flowers bloomed)
- Each flower blooms individually
- Distributed across individuals
- May be temporally staggered

As folhas caíram
(The leaves fell)
- Each leaf falls separately
- Distributed event

b) Distributed appearance:

Os sintomas surgiram
(The symptoms appeared)
- Each symptom appears (possibly at different times)
- Distributed manifestation

Os problemas se multiplicaram
(The problems multiplied)

c) Mass distributed events:

As pedras rolaram
(The stones rolled)
- Each stone rolls (individual event)
- Many instances simultaneously

As estrelas brilharam
(The stars shone)
- Distributed across many individual stars

Properties

1. Plural subjects (not collective nouns):

   as flores (the flowers - individual flowers)
   as pedras (the stones - individual stones)
   

2. Distributive reading preferred:

   As flores desabrocharam uma por uma
   (The flowers bloomed one by one)
   - Sequential distribution explicit
   

3. Can modify with distributive quantifiers:

   Cada flor desabrochou
   (Each flower bloomed)
   

Reciprocal Events (Mutual Interaction)

Definition: Events where participants mutually affect each other.

Semantic structure: INTERACT(x, y) where both are agents and patients

Examples:

a) Social reciprocals:

João e Maria se encontraram
(João and Maria met (each other))
- Mutual meeting
- Both are participants

Os amigos se cumprimentaram
(The friends greeted each other)
- Reciprocal action

As pessoas se abraçaram
(The people hugged (each other))

b) Physical reciprocals:

As moléculas se chocaram
(The molecules collided (with each other))
- Mutual collision

Os corpos se atraíram
(The bodies attracted (each other))
- Mutual attraction (physics)

c) Verbal reciprocals:

Eles se comunicaram
(They communicated (with each other))
- Mutual communication

Os países se confrontaram
(The countries confronted each other)

Linguistic properties

1. Reflexive/reciprocal se:

   se encontrar (meet each other)
   se abraçar (hug each other)
   

2. Plural or coordinated subjects:

   João e Maria (João and Maria - coordinated)
   Os amigos (the friends - plural)
   

3. Reciprocal interpretation test:

   João e Maria se encontraram
   = João encontrou Maria E Maria encontrou João
   (Mutual/reciprocal reading)
   

4. Can add reciprocal intensifier:

   um ao outro (one another), mutuamente (mutually)
   João e Maria se ajudaram um ao outro
   (João and Maria helped one another)
   

Relationship to Voice: Agent-Oriented Readings

Eventive frames have complex interactions with voice (active, passive, middle) and can sometimes take agent-oriented readings.

Middle Voice and Eventive Frames

Many eventive frames use middle voice constructions - the reflexive se marking spontaneous/medial events.

Middle voice characteristics (Kemmer 1993):

• Event happens spontaneously (not externally caused)
• Subject is both initiator and endpoint (not clearly agent or patient)
• Marked with reflexive se in Portuguese

Examples:

a) Spontaneous events (middle):

A porta se abriu
(The door opened (itself) / opened spontaneously)
- Middle construction with *se*
- Emphasizes spontaneity
- No external agent implied

O vaso se quebrou
(The vase broke (itself) / broke spontaneously)

O metal se oxidou
(The metal oxidized (itself))

Contrast:

WITHOUT SE (eventive, simple): A porta abriu (The door opened)
WITH SE (middle, emphatic spontaneity): A porta se abriu (The door opened spontaneously)

b) Natural processes (middle):

A matéria se decompôs
(The matter decomposed (itself))

A substância se dissolveu
(The substance dissolved (itself))

O problema se resolveu
(The problem resolved (itself))

Function of se in eventive frames:

1. Emphasizes spontaneity:

   • Se highlights lack of external agent
   • Event occurs "by itself"

2. Detransitivization:

   • Removes potential agent from structure
   • João abriu a porta (transitive) → A porta se abriu (intransitive middle)

3. Middle semantics:

   • Subject is affected by event it undergoes
   • But not clearly a patient (no external agent)

Passive vs. Eventive Interpretations

Some structures are ambiguous between passive (with implicit agent) and eventive (spontaneous) readings:

Ambiguous structure:

A porta foi aberta
(The door was opened)

Reading 1: Passive (agent implied)

A porta foi aberta (por alguém)
(The door was opened by someone)
- Implicit agent exists
- Someone opened it
- Focus on patient (door) but agent conceptually present

Reading 2: Eventive/Spontaneous

A porta foi aberta (espontaneamente/de alguma forma)
(The door opened / came to be open)
- No agent implied
- Spontaneous or unknown cause
- Pure event reading

Disambiguation factors

Agent-addition test:

✓ A porta foi aberta por João (passive - agent can be added)
? A porta foi aberta por si só (eventive - "by itself" suggests spontaneous)

Manner test:

A porta foi aberta deliberadamente
→ Passive reading (intentional agent implied)

A porta foi aberta de repente
→ Can be either (sudden event or sudden action)

Context:

Alguém abriu a porta? Sim, a porta foi aberta.
(Someone opened the door? Yes, the door was opened.)
→ Passive (agent in discourse context)

O que aconteceu? A porta foi aberta.
(What happened? The door opened.)
→ Eventive (event-asking context)

Agentive Coercion of Eventive Frames

Some eventive frames can be coerced into agentive readings with appropriate context:

Base eventive interpretation:

O fogo queimou
(The fire burned)
- Simple occurrence
- No agent implied

Coerced agentive interpretation:

O fogo queimou (deliberadamente/por muito tempo/intensamente para consumir tudo)
(The fire burned deliberately/for a long time/intensely to consume everything)
→ Personification: fire construed as agent-like
→ Or: implies human agent maintaining fire

More examples:

As flores cresceram (The flowers grew - eventive)
vs.
As flores cresceram (com os cuidados dela) (The flowers grew with her care - facilitative agent implied)

Conditions for agentive coercion

1. Intentional adverbs suggest agency:

   deliberately, carefully, strategically
   

2. Purpose clauses imply intentionality:

   O fogo queimou para purificar a floresta
   (The fire burned to purify the forest - purposes suggest intent)
   

3. Control predicates:

   João fez o fogo queimar (João made the fire burn - control)
   

Summary Table: Eventive Frame Properties

Subtype	Participants	Telicity	Spontaneity	Example
Weather	Minimal/none	Atelic (usually)	High	chover, nevar
Geological	Theme (optional)	Varies	High	tremer, erupcionar
Biological	Theme (usually)	Telic (often)	High	crescer, amadurecer
Physical process	Theme	Varies	High	queimar, evaporar
Activity	Theme	Atelic	Varies	fluir, brilhar
Accomplishment	Theme	Telic	Varies	consumir-se, completar
Collective	Collective Theme	Varies	Low	reunir-se, manifestar-se
Distributed	Multiple Themes	Varies	Varies	desabrochar, cair
Reciprocal	Multiple mutual	Atelic (often)	Low	encontrar-se, chocar-se

Diagnostic Tests for Eventive Frames

Test 1: Participant Minimality

Can the frame occur with minimal or no specified participants?

✓ Choveu (It rained - no participants) → EVENTIVE
✗ *João matou (João killed - requires Patient) → NOT EVENTIVE (causative)

Test 2: Agent Impossibility

Is an intentional agent incompatible or very odd?

✓ A rocha erodiu (The rock eroded - no agent) → EVENTIVE
✗ João construiu (João built - agent required) → NOT EVENTIVE (causative)

Test 3: Spontaneity

Is the event conceptualized as occurring spontaneously/naturally?

✓ A fruta amadureceu (The fruit ripened - spontaneous) → EVENTIVE
✗ João amadureceu a fruta (odd - ripening not typically caused) → If acceptable, CAUSATIVE

Test 4: Middle Voice se

Does the frame naturally take reflexive se to emphasize spontaneity?

✓ O problema se resolveu (The problem resolved itself) → EVENTIVE
✗ *João se construiu uma casa (ungrammatical middle) → NOT EVENTIVE

Test 5: Impersonal Construction

Can the frame appear in impersonal constructions?

✓ Choveu muito (It rained a lot - impersonal) → EVENTIVE
✗ *João muito (nonsensical) → NOT EVENTIVE

Test 6: Existential Construction

Can the frame appear with haver (there be) or similar?

✓ Houve uma tempestade (There was a storm) → EVENTIVE
✗ *Houve João matando Pedro (odd) → NOT typically EVENTIVE

Test 7: Generic Theme Role

When participants are present, are their roles semantically underspecified?

✓ A água flui (Water flows - generic Theme, not affected/causing) → EVENTIVE
✗ João quebrou o vaso (Agent and Patient well-specified) → CAUSATIVE

Boundary Cases and Overlaps

Eventive vs. Inchoative

Overlap: Both involve change, but focus differs

Inchoative: Focus on resultant state

A porta abriu (The door opened)
- Interpretation: Door is now open (state achieved)
- Result-oriented

Eventive: Focus on event occurrence

A porta abriu (The door opened)
- Interpretation: Opening event occurred
- Process-oriented (though same sentence!)

Ambiguity: Many sentences are genuinely ambiguous

• Context determines interpretation
• Inchoative reading emphasized with result state contexts
• Eventive reading emphasized with temporal/event contexts

Example context:

INCHOATIVE context:
"Como está a porta?" "Está aberta - a porta abriu"
(How is the door? It's open - the door opened)
→ Focus on resultant state

EVENTIVE context:
"O que aconteceu?" "A porta abriu"
(What happened? The door opened)
→ Focus on event occurrence

Eventive vs. Causative

Overlap: Same verb can be framed either way

Causative: Agent causes event

João abriu a porta (João opened the door)
- Agent-oriented
- Causation profiled

Eventive: Event occurs (spontaneously)

A porta abriu (The door opened)
- Event-oriented
- Causation backgrounded

Diagnostic: Presence/absence of Agent distinguishes

• Agent present → Causative
• Agent absent, spontaneous → Eventive

Eventive vs. Action

Core distinction: Agency - volitional agent vs. natural phenomenon

Action: Volitional agent performs activity

João correu (João ran)
- Sentient, volitional agent
- Intentional activity
- Can take imperatives: *Corra!*
- ACT(João, run)

Eventive: Natural phenomenon or non-agentive occurrence

O vento soprou (The wind blew)
Choveu (It rained)
- No volitional agent
- Natural process
- Cannot take imperatives: ✗ *Vento, sopre!*
- OCCUR(wind_blow)

Clear boundary:

• Sentient, volitional agent required → Action
• No agent or non-agentive force → Eventive

Note on causative natural forces: When natural forces cause results (O vento quebrou a janela - Wind broke the window), these are classified as Eventive rather than Causative, maintaining the distinction between agentive and non-agentive causation.

Eventive vs. Stative

Clear distinction: Dynamics

Eventive: Dynamic (something happens)

O rio flui (The river flows)
- Ongoing process/activity
- Dynamic

Stative: Static (something holds/obtains)

O rio é longo (The river is long)
- Property holds
- Static

Diagnostic: Progressive and change

• Eventive: Compatible with progressive, involves change
• Stative: Incompatible with progressive (or coerced), no change

Eventive vs. Transition

Overlap: Both dynamic, but path structure differs

Transition: Path/Goal-oriented

O rio vai para o mar
(The river goes to the sea)
- Path from source to goal
- Goal profiled

Eventive: Event-oriented, path not essential

O rio flui
(The river flows)
- Ongoing activity
- No goal necessarily

Diagnostic: Presence of Source/Path/Goal

• Goal/Path profiled → Transition
• Activity without path → Eventive

The Residual Nature of Eventive Namespace

The Eventive namespace serves as a residual category for dynamic occurrences that don't fit neatly elsewhere:

What makes a frame Eventive?

Positive criteria (what it IS):

1. Dynamic (something happens/occurs)
2. Event itself is primary semantic content
3. Participants are minimal, optional, or underspecified
4. Often spontaneous (no clear external causation)
5. Process-focused rather than participant-focused

Negative criteria (what it is NOT):

1. NOT Causative (no profiled Agent/Cause)
2. NOT Inchoative (not focused on result state achievement)
3. NOT Transition (no profiled path/goal structure)
4. NOT Experiential (no Experiencer undergoing mental/perceptual event)
5. NOT Stative (not static property or relation)

Core examples that are clearly Eventive:

• Weather: chover, nevar (rain, snow)
• Natural processes: erosionar, evaporar (erode, evaporate)
• Activities: fluir, brilhar (flow, shine)
• Spontaneous occurrences: surgir, acontecer (arise, happen)

The Eventive namespace captures: "Things that happen in the world, where the happening itself is what matters most."