Inchoative Namespace

Core Definition

Inchoative frames foreground the TELIC ROLE, specifically emphasizing the achievement of a new state by an affected entity. These frames center on the Patient/Theme undergoing a transition, with the focus on the resultant state and the coming-into-being of that state rather than on the causer or the path of change.

Theoretical foundation: Inchoatives encode the basic semantic template BECOME(State(x)), where an entity x transitions into a new state. The core insight is that inchoatives profile the endpoint - they are inherently telic (goal-oriented) and conceptualize events from the perspective of the affected entity achieving a new configuration.

Key characteristics:

• Patient/Theme-centric: The affected entity is the primary participant
• Endpoint-focused: The resultant state is semantically salient
• State-transition: Encodes change from State₁ to State₂
• No obligatory causer: Causation may be present but is backgrounded or absent

Vendler aspectual class: Achievements (punctual) or Accomplishments (durative with inherent endpoint)

Change types in Inchoative Frames

Inchoatives are not uniform - they vary based on what kind of change is profiled. We can distinguish several major types.

Physical State Change

Definition: Change in the physical structure, integrity, or material properties of an entity.

Semantic template: BECOME(Physical_State(x))

Examples:

• O vaso quebrou ("The vase broke") - structural integrity change
• O gelo derreteu ("The ice melted") - phase transition (solid → liquid)
• A corda arrebentou ("The rope snapped") - physical rupture
• O metal enferrujou ("The metal rusted") - material degradation
• A madeira apodreceu ("The wood rotted") - organic decomposition

Subtypes

a) Destruction/Damage:

• quebrar (break), rasgar (tear), partir (split), romper (rupture)
• Result: Loss of physical integrity or function
• Often irreversible

b) Material transformation:

• derreter (melt), evaporar (evaporate), congelar (freeze), solidificar (solidify)
• Result: Phase/state change in matter
• May be reversible (freeze ↔ melt)

c) Surface/property change:

• enferrujar (rust), amarelar (yellow), escurecer (darken), amolecer (soften)
• Result: Change in surface properties or material characteristics
• Often gradual/incremental

Diagnostic features:

• Typically visible/observable physical change
• Can be verified by inspection: O vaso está quebrado
• Often involves loss or gain of physical properties

Property/Attribute Change

Definition: Change in scalar properties, qualities, or attributes without necessarily changing physical structure.

Semantic template: BECOME(Property(x, degree))

Examples:

• O ambiente esfriou ("The environment cooled") - temperature decrease
• O produto encareceu ("The product became expensive") - price increase
• A situação melhorou ("The situation improved") - quality increase
• O debate esquentou ("The debate heated up") - intensity increase (metaphorical)
• A empresa cresceu ("The company grew") - size/scale increase

Key feature: Scalar structure - these involve change along a dimension or scale

Scalar types

a) Temperature scale:

• esquentar/aquecer (heat up), esfriar (cool down)
• Scale: cold ←→ hot

b) Quality/value scale:

• melhorar (improve), piorar (worsen)
• Scale: bad ←→ good

c) Size/quantity scale:

• crescer (grow), aumentar (increase), diminuir (decrease), encolher (shrink)
• Scale: small ←→ large

d) Intensity scale:

• intensificar (intensify), fortalecer (strengthen), enfraquecer (weaken)
• Scale: weak ←→ strong

Diagnostic features

• Can be modified by degree expressions: muito, pouco, um pouco, bastante
• Often have comparative forms: A situação melhorou mais que antes
• May not involve visible physical change (e.g., price, value)

Locational/Spatial Change

Definition: Change in spatial location, position, or configuration (overlaps with Transition namespace - see boundary discussion below).

Semantic template: BECOME(Located_at(x, Location))

Examples:

• A porta abriu ("The door opened") - change in position/configuration
• O balão subiu ("The balloon rose") - vertical displacement
• A flor desabrochou ("The flower bloomed") - spatial unfolding
• O leque abriu ("The fan opened") - configuration change

Inchoative vs. Transition

• Inchoative reading: Focuses on achieved configuration (abriu = is now in open state)
• Transition reading: Focuses on path of motion (subiu = moved along upward path)

Diagnostic

Inchoative locational changes typically involve:

• Configuration change of single entity (not movement through space)
• Resultant state is primary (A porta está aberta)
• Path is not elaborated or profiled

State/Condition Change

Definition: Change in abstract state, condition, or status (social, psychological, legal, etc.).

Semantic template: BECOME(Condition(x))

Examples:

• João adoeceu ("João became sick") - health state change
• Maria enriqueceu ("Maria became rich") - wealth state change
• O contrato venceu ("The contract expired") - temporal/legal state change
• A fruta amadureceu ("The fruit ripened") - maturation state
• O país democratizou ("The country democratized") - political state change

Subtypes

a) Biological/health states:

• adoecer (become sick), sarar (heal), envelhecer (age), amadurecer (mature)

b) Social/economic states:

• enriquecer (become rich), empobrecer (become poor), formar-se (graduate)

c) Psychological/emotional states (overlaps with Experiential namespace):

• alegrar-se (become happy), entristecer-se (become sad), zangar-se (become angry)

d) Legal/institutional states:

• casar-se (marry), divorciar-se (divorce), aposentar-se (retire)

Diagnostic features

• Often abstract - not directly visible
• May require social/institutional framework
• Result state may be permanent or reversible depending on type

Existential Change (Coming-into/out-of-being)

Definition: Change in existence status - entity begins or ceases to exist.

Semantic template: BECOME(Exist(x)) or BECOME(¬Exist(x))

Examples:

• A empresa surgiu ("The company emerged") - coming into existence
• O problema apareceu ("The problem appeared") - becoming manifest
• A civilização desapareceu ("The civilization disappeared") - ceasing to exist
• O reino caiu ("The kingdom fell") - ceasing to exist (metaphorical)
• Nasceu uma nova era ("A new era was born") - coming into existence (metaphorical)

Subtypes

a) Coming into existence:

• surgir (emerge), aparecer (appear), nascer (be born), brotar (sprout)

b) Ceasing to exist:

• desaparecer (disappear), morrer (die), extinguir-se (become extinct), sumir (vanish)

Special property

These often lack causative alternants:

• ✗ João apareceu o problema (ungrammatical)
• ✓ João fez o problema aparecer (periphrastic causative required)

Gradability: Punctual vs. Gradual Change

Inchoative frames vary in whether the change is conceptualized as instantaneous (punctual) or gradual (durative).

Punctual Inchoatives (Achievements)

Definition: The change is conceptualized as occurring at an instant, with no internal temporal structure.

Semantic template: BECOME(State(x)) at time point t

Examples:

• O vaso quebrou ("The vase broke") - instant of breakage
• A bomba explodiu ("The bomb exploded") - instant of explosion
• O galho partiu ("The branch snapped") - instant of fracture
• O balão estourou ("The balloon popped") - instant of rupture

Aspectual properties

• Incompatible with progressive (without coercion):

  • ✗ O vaso está quebrando (requires special interpretation: slow-motion, iterative, or imminence)
  • ✓ O vaso quebrou (simple past, punctual)

• Compatible with "em X tempo" (in X time - point of completion):

  • ✓ O vaso quebrou em um segundo

• Incompatible with "por X tempo" (for X time - duration):

  • ✗ O vaso quebrou por uma hora

• "Quase" (almost) test - refers to event not happening:

  • O vaso quase quebrou = The vase almost broke (but didn't)

Cognitive basis: These changes are conceptualized as threshold-crossing - once a critical point is reached, the change is instantaneous and complete.

Gradual Inchoatives (Accomplishments)

Definition: The change unfolds gradually over time, with measurable progression toward the endpoint.

Semantic template: BECOME(State(x)) over interval [t₁, t₂]

Examples:

• O gelo derreteu ("The ice melted") - gradual phase transition
• A fruta amadureceu ("The fruit ripened") - gradual maturation
• O metal enferrujou ("The metal rusted") - gradual oxidation
• A situação melhorou ("The situation improved") - gradual improvement
• A temperatura aumentou ("The temperature increased") - gradual scalar change

Aspectual properties

• Compatible with progressive:

  • ✓ O gelo está derretendo (ongoing process)
  • ✓ A situação está melhorando (ongoing improvement)

• Compatible with "por X tempo" (for X time - duration of process):

  • ✓ O gelo derreteu por duas horas (process lasted two hours)

• Compatible with "em X tempo" (in X time - completion time):

  • ✓ O gelo derreteu em duas horas (completed in two hours)

• "Quase" (almost) test - can refer to partial completion:

  • O gelo quase derreteu = The ice almost melted (partially melted, or melting was interrupted)

• Degree modification possible:

  • ✓ O gelo derreteu um pouco / bastante / completamente

Cognitive basis: These changes involve gradual accumulation - properties change incrementally along a scale or dimension.

The Punctual-Gradual Gradient

Many inchoatives can be construed either way depending on context and granularity:

Example: A porta abriu

Punctual construal (achievement):

• Focus: Instant when door transitions from closed to open
• Context: A porta abriu de repente ("The door opened suddenly")
• Aspectual behavior: ✗ A porta está abrindo (marked)

Gradual construal (accomplishment):

• Focus: Progressive process of opening
• Context: A porta está abrindo lentamente ("The door is opening slowly")
• Aspectual behavior: ✓ A porta está abrindo (natural)

Factors affecting construal:

1. Temporal adverbials: de repente forces punctual, lentamente forces gradual
2. Progressive aspect: Forces gradual interpretation
3. Manner specification: Elaborating manner suggests gradual process
4. Physical reality: Actual duration of event in world

Result States: Process vs. Result Profiling

Inchoative frames differ in whether they profile the process of change, the resultant state, or both.

Result-Profiling Inchoatives

Focus: The achieved state is primary; the process is backgrounded or irrelevant.

Examples:

• O vaso quebrou → Focus: O vaso está quebrado (broken state)
• A porta abriu → Focus: A porta está aberta (open state)
• A água congelou → Focus: A água está congelada (frozen state)

Properties:

• Strong implication of resultant state
• Can be tested: "X Verb-ed → X is Verb-ed"
• Result state persists after event completion
• Often lexicalized result state adjective: quebrado, aberto, congelado

Syntactic evidence - Result state readings with estar:

✓ O vaso está quebrado (result state of breaking)
✓ A porta está aberta (result state of opening)
✓ A água está congelada (result state of freezing)

Process-Profiling Inchoatives

Focus: The process of change is primary; result state may be less prominent or temporary.

Examples:

• A temperatura aumentou → Focus on process of increasing (result state less salient)
• O ambiente esfriou → Focus on cooling process
• A discussão esquentou → Focus on intensification process

Properties:

• Process component is semantically salient
• Result state may be temporary or reversible
• Often scalar/gradual changes
• May not have stable result state adjective

Syntactic evidence - Difficulty with result state readings:

? A temperatura está aumentada (awkward - not a stable state)
? O ambiente está esfriado (awkward - esfriado not standard adjective)
✓ A temperatura aumentou (process interpretation natural)

Ambiguous Inchoatives (Process + Result)

Some inchoatives profile both equally:

Example: A fruta amadureceu ("The fruit ripened")

Process reading:

• ✓ A fruta está amadurecendo (ongoing maturation process)
• ✓ A fruta amadureceu durante uma semana (week-long process)

Result reading:

• ✓ A fruta está madura (achieved state of ripeness)
• ✓ A fruta amadureceu (is now ripe)

Both aspects are equally accessible and semantically important.

Causative Alternations

A defining property of many inchoatives is participation in the causative-inchoative alternation (also called anticausative alternation).

The Alternation Pattern

Transitive causative form: Agent CAUSE BECOME(State(Patient))

• João quebrou o vaso ("João broke the vase")

Intransitive inchoative form: BECOME(State(Theme))

• O vaso quebrou ("The vase broke")

Semantic relationship:

• Same verb form in Portuguese (unlike English break/break vs. kill/die)
• Intransitive is detransitivized version - Agent is removed from argument structure
• Patient of transitive = Theme/Subject of intransitive
• Same result state in both

5.2 Alternating vs. Non-alternating Inchoatives

Alternating inchoatives** (most common)

Change of state verbs:

• abrir (open): João abriu a porta ↔ A porta abriu
• quebrar (break): Maria quebrou o vaso ↔ O vaso quebrou
• derreter (melt): O sol derreteu o gelo ↔ O gelo derreteu
• secar (dry): O vento secou a roupa ↔ A roupa secou

Diagnostic: Patient can undergo change spontaneously or through external causation

Non-alternating inchoatives** (intransitive only)

Inherently spontaneous:

• morrer (die): ✓ João morreu ↔ ✗ Maria morreu João
  • (Must use suppletive causative: Maria matou João)
• surgir (emerge): ✓ O problema surgiu ↔ ✗ João surgiu o problema
• florescer (bloom): ✓ A flor floresceu ↔ ✗ O jardineiro floresceu a flor

Diagnostic

Change is conceptualized as internal/spontaneous - cannot be directly externally caused

Why no alternation?

1. Biological processes: morrer, nascer, florescer - involve internal biological programs
2. Emergence events: surgir, aparecer - involve coming-into-being without external manipulation
3. Natural maturation: amadurecer (in some uses) - internal development

Morphological Marking of Alternation

Portuguese has several strategies for marking the inchoative in alternations:

A) Zero marking (most common):

• Same form for causative and inchoative
• quebrar, abrir, fechar, derreter, secar

B) Reflexive se (for some verbs):

• Inchoative marked with reflexive clitic
• dissolver (dissolve): João dissolveu o açúcar ↔ O açúcar se dissolveu
• transformar (transform): A máquina transformou o material ↔ O material se transformou
• desenvolver (develop): Eles desenvolveram a tecnologia ↔ A tecnologia se desenvolveu

Semantic nuance of se: Often emphasizes spontaneity or lack of external agent

C) Suppletive forms (lexical causative ≠ lexical inchoative):

• matar (kill) ↔ morrer (die)
• alimentar (feed) ↔ comer (eat)
• Different lexical items, no morphological relationship

5.4 Theoretical Analysis of Alternation

Two main approaches:

Approach 1: Derivational relationship (Levin & Rappaport Hovav)

• One form is basic, the other derived
• Either: Inchoative is basic, causative adds Agent
• Or: Causative is basic, inchoative removes Agent

Approach 2: Underspecification (Reinhart, Chierchia)

• Single lexical entry with underspecified event structure
• [CAUSE] BECOME(State(x))
• CAUSE component can be saturated (transitive) or unsaturated (intransitive)

Evidence for underspecification in Portuguese:

• Same verbal form (no morphological marking in many cases)
• Flexible argument realization
• Semantically, same result state

Telic Structure: Encoding the Inherent Endpoint

Inchoatives are inherently telic - they have a built-in endpoint or goal state.

What is Telicity?

Telic events: Have a natural endpoint after which the event cannot continue

• O vaso quebrou - endpoint: broken state achieved, cannot continue breaking

Atelic events: No natural endpoint, can continue indefinitely

• João correu - no inherent endpoint, can keep running

How Inchoatives Encode Endpoints

Lexically specified endpoint: The endpoint is part of the verb's lexical meaning

Examples:

• abrir - endpoint: open state
• quebrar - endpoint: broken state
• derreter - endpoint: liquid state
• amadurecer - endpoint: ripe state

Test: "in X time" (bounded) vs. "for X time" (unbounded)

✓ O gelo derreteu em 10 minutos (bounded - reached endpoint in 10 min)
✗ ?O gelo derreteu por 10 minutos (odd - implies endpoint was reached over 10 min)
  vs.
✗ ?João correu em 10 minutos (odd without goal)
✓ João correu por 10 minutos (unbounded duration)

Scalar Endpoints

For scalar inchoatives, the endpoint is a degree on a scale:

Absolute scalar endpoint:

• encher (fill): endpoint = completely full
• esvaziar (empty): endpoint = completely empty
• secar (dry): endpoint = completely dry

Test: "Completamente" (completely)

✓ O tanque encheu completamente (reached maximum)
✓ A roupa secou completamente (reached minimum moisture)

Relative scalar endpoint:

• crescer (grow): endpoint = contextually determined size
• melhorar (improve): endpoint = contextually determined quality level

Test: No absolute maximum

✓ A empresa cresceu muito, mas pode crescer mais
✓ A situação melhorou, mas pode melhorar mais

Degree Achievements (Kennedy & McNally)

Some inchoatives are degree achievements - they involve change along a scale with variable endpoints:

Examples:

• esfriar (cool): A sopa esfriou (cooled to some degree)
• esquentar (warm): O ambiente esquentou (warmed to some degree)
• escurecer (darken): O céu escureceu (darkened to some degree)

Properties:

• Endpoint is contextually determined (not absolute)
• Compatible with degree modifiers: um pouco, bastante, muito
• Can be stopped before "complete" endpoint: A sopa esfriou um pouco

Contrast with absolute inchoatives:

DEGREE: A sopa esfriou um pouco (partial cooling is natural)
ABSOLUTE: ?O vaso quebrou um pouco (partial breaking is marked - either broken or not)

Stative Result Interpretation

Many inchoatives have corresponding result state interpretations that are stative rather than eventive.

Event vs. Result State Readings

Eventive inchoative reading: Describes the event of change

• A porta abriu às 3h ("The door opened at 3pm") - event of opening

Stative result reading: Describes the resultant state

• A porta está aberta ("The door is open") - state of openness

Syntactic Encoding of Result States

Portuguese uses different copulas and participial forms:

Perfect participle with estar (result state):

✓ O vaso está quebrado (the vase is broken - result state)
✓ A porta está aberta (the door is open - result state)
✓ A água está congelada (the water is frozen - result state)

Adjective form (sometimes identical to participle):

✓ aberto (open), quebrado (broken), congelado (frozen)
These can be used attributively: o vaso quebrado, a porta aberta

Ser vs. Estar with Result States

Portuguese copula choice affects interpretation:

Estar + participle = result state (stage-level):

• A porta está aberta (temporary state resulting from opening event)

Ser + participle = permanent/inherent property (individual-level):

• A porta é aberta (awkward - suggests openness is permanent characteristic)
• Better: A porta é grande (inherent property)

Exception: Some participles with ser indicate passive voice:

• O vaso foi quebrado por João (passive event)
• vs. O vaso está quebrado (result state)

Not All Inchoatives Have Stable Result States

Some inchoatives resist stative result interpretation:

Process-focused inchoatives:

✓ A temperatura aumentou (event)
✗ ?A temperatura está aumentada (awkward as result state)

✓ A situação melhorou (event)
? A situação está melhorada (marginal as result state - prefer "está melhor")

Reasons:

• Scalar changes without clear binary endpoints
• Temporary/reversible states
• Lack of lexicalized result state adjective

Summary Table: Inchoative Properties

Dimension	Type	Features	Example	Test
Change type	Physical	Structural change	quebrar, derreter	Physical inspection
	Property	Scalar/attribute	melhorar, crescer	Degree modification
	Locational	Spatial config	abrir, fechar	Spatial result
	State/condition	Abstract state	adoecer, amadurecer	Abstract state test
Gradability	Punctual	Instantaneous	quebrar, explodir	✗ Progressive
	Gradual	Durative	derreter, amadurecer	✓ Progressive
Result state	Result-profiling	Stable endpoint	quebrar → quebrado	✓ Estar + participle
	Process-profiling	Process focus	aumentar, melhorar	✗ Stable adjective
Alternation	Alternating	±Causative form	abrir ↔ abrir	Transitive/intransitive
	Non-alternating	Intransitive only	morrer, surgir	✗ Transitive
Telicity	Absolute endpoint	Fixed result	encher, esvaziar	Completamente
	Relative endpoint	Scalar	crescer, melhorar	No absolute max

Diagnostic Tests for Inchoative Frames

Test 1: Inchoative Alternation

Does the verb have both transitive (causative) and intransitive (inchoative) forms?

✓ João abriu a porta / A porta abriu → INCHOATIVE
✗ João criou o projeto / *O projeto criou → NOT INCHOATIVE (creation, not change)

Test 2: Result State

Does the verb entail a specific, verifiable result state?

✓ O vaso quebrou → O vaso está quebrado → INCHOATIVE
✗ João correu → ?João está corrido → NOT INCHOATIVE (activity)

Test 3: Patient/Theme-Focus

Is the affected entity the primary participant (not the causer)?

✓ O gelo derreteu (focus on gelo) → INCHOATIVE
✗ João derreteu o gelo (focus on João) → CAUSATIVE

Test 4: Telicity

Does the event have a natural endpoint?

✓ A água congelou em uma hora (bounded) → INCHOATIVE (telic)
✗ A água fluiu por uma hora (unbounded) → NOT INCHOATIVE (atelic)

Test 5: BECOME decomposition

Can the verb be decomposed as BECOME(State)?

✓ quebrar = BECOME(broken) → INCHOATIVE
✗ correr ≠ BECOME(State) → NOT INCHOATIVE

Boundary Cases: Inchoative vs. Other Namespaces

Inchoative vs. Causative

Same verb, different argument structure:

• Causative: Agent causes change (João quebrou o vaso)
• Inchoative: Theme undergoes change (O vaso quebrou)

Inchoative vs. Transition

• Inchoative: Focus on achieved state (A porta abriu = is now open)
• Transition: Focus on path/trajectory (João foi para o Rio = movement along path)

Inchoative vs. Experiential

Psychological inchoatives overlap with experiential frames:

• João alegrou-se (became happy) - inchoative reading (state change)
• João se alegrou com a notícia (felt joy from news) - experiencer reading (psychological event)

Inchoative vs. Action

Core distinction: Agent presence and perspective

Inchoative (No agent, result-focused):

O vaso quebrou (The vase broke)
- Theme: vaso (affected entity)
- No agent mentioned
- Focus: result state (broken)
- BECOME(broken(vaso))

Action (Agent present, activity-focused):

João correu (João ran)
- Agent: João (doer)
- Activity: running
- Focus: process of running
- ACT(João, run)

Key differences:

1. Participant structure:

   • Inchoative: Theme only (no agent)
   • Action: Agent required

2. Semantic focus:

   • Inchoative: Result/endpoint achieved
   • Action: Activity/process performed

3. Telicity:

   • Inchoative: Telic (has endpoint)
   • Action: Typically atelic (no endpoint)

No direct overlap: These namespaces are complementary rather than competing:

• Inchoatives describe changes without profiling causers
• Actions describe activities by agents without required results